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SOURCES
OF KNOWLEDGE
-
Beliefs
-
Tradition
-
Personal
-
Experience
-
Logic
-
Intuition
-
RESEARCH
§
Process
for developing
knowledge:
Identify
Problem
Conduct
Empirical Studies
Replicate
Studies
Synthesize
Research
Adoption and
Evaluation
§
Process
-Select
problem
-Review
literature
-Select
specific hypothesis
-Collect
data
-Analyze
data
-Interpret
findings
-State
conclusions
§
Characteristics
-Objective
-Precise
-Verifiable
-Explanatory
-Empirical
-Logical
-Probabilistic
§
Limitations
-Human
subjects
-Public
institutions
-Complexity
of research problem
-Methodological
dificulties
§
Functions
of Basic Research
-Concerned
with knowing,
explaining, and
predicting natural and
social phenomena
-Starts
with theory, principle
or generalization
-Tests
theories
§
Functions
of Applied Research
-Conducted
in the field
-Deals
with practical
problems
§
Functions
of Evaluation Research
-Assesses
merit and worth of
particular practices
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
QUANTITATIVE
Researcher
manipulates
independent variable
to investigate
cause-and-effect
relationship between
independent and
dependent variable.
-True
experimental
-Quasi-experimental
-Single-subject
Researcher
describes things that
have occurred,
examines relationships
without suggesting
causation, or explores
causal relationships
among variables that
cannot be manipulated.
-Descriptive
-Correlational
-Survey
-Expost
facto
QUALITATIVE
Researcher
describes behaviors as
they occur in the
natural envionment.
-Concept
-Historical
-Legal
Data
Collection Techniques
Use
numbers to describe or
measure the results.
-Structured
observations
-Standardized
interviews
-Tests
-Questionnaires
-Unobtrusive
measures
Use
words to collect the
data.
-Ethnographic
observations and
interviews
-Documents
RESEARCH
REPORTS
QUANTITATIVE
Abstract
Introduction
Statement
of Research Problem
Review
of Literature
Statement
of Research
Hypotheses/Questions
Methodology
Results
Discussion,
Implications,
Conclusions
References
QUALITATIVE
Introduction
Methodology
Findings
and Interpretation
Conclusions
RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
SOURCES
-Casual
observation
-Deductions
from theory
-Related
literature
-Current
social and political
issues
-Practical
situations
-Personal
experience
SIGNIFICANCE
Determined
by if they:
-Provide
knowledge
-Test
theories
-Increase
generalizability
-Extend
empirical
understandings
-Advance
methodology
-Focus
of current issue
-Evaluate
specific practice or
policy
-Are
exploratory studies
PROBLEM
STATEMENT
Specifies
the focus,
educational, context,
importance, and the
frameworks for
reporting the
findings.
-Use
deductive logic
-Identify
population, variables,
and logic of the
problem
-Write
statement clearly and
concisely
-Write
statement as research
purpose, questions, or
hypotheses before data
is collected
-Suggests
the design of the
study
-Descriptive
-Relationship
-Difference
Should:
-State
expected relationship
or difference between
two or more variables
-Be
testable
-Offer
tentative explanation
-Use
inductive logic
-State
problem initially in
planning for the study
-Write
statement as research
purpose or questions
-Reformulate
problem statement
during data collection
-Ethnographic
-Historical
-Legal
Evaluate
in terms of specific
criteria related to:
-General
research problem
-Significance
of the problem
-Research
questions and
hypotheses in
quantitative research
-Research
questions in
qualitative research
LITERATURE
REVIEW
FUNCTIONS
-Defines
and limits problem
-Places
study in perspective
-Avoids
replication
-Selects
methods and measures
-Relates
findings to previous
research
Suggests
further research
STANDARDS
OF ADEQUACY
Judged
adequate by 3
criteria:
-Selection
of literature
-Criticism
of literature
-Summary
and Interpretation
META-ANALYSIS
Uses
statistical techniques
to synthesize results
of prior independently
conducted studies
Steps:
-Formulate
research synthesis
problem
-Collect
data
-Evaluate
data
-Analyze
and interpret data
-Public
presentation
STEPS
IN LITERATURE REVIEW
- Analyze
problem statement
- Search
and read secondary
literature
- Select
appropriate index
- Identify
descriptors
- Conduct
manual/computer
search
- analyze
research problem
- determine
type of search
- select
database
- select
descriptors
- conduct
literature
search
- analyze
printout
- Read
relevant primary
literature
- Organize
notes
- abstract
articles on
index cards
- organize
literature by
developing
appropriate
classification
system
- Write
review
Quantitative
Research:
-Organize
by sections
(introduction,
critical review,
summary)
-Organize
criticism by dates,
variables/treatments,
research designs and
methods, general to
closely related
literature, or
combination of these
Qualitative
Research:
-Conduct
preliminary literature
review
-Continually
review literature
during data collection
and analysis
-Alternative
presentations of
literature (a)
separate discussions
(b) integration within
text
DESIGNING
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
PURPOSE
OF RESEARCH DESIGN
To
provide a credible
answer to a research
question.
PROCEDURES
Must
be presented in detail
and specify:
-when,
where, and how data
will be collected
-experimental
treatment (where
applicable)
-procedures
used to control bias
DATA
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Questionnaires
Standardized
Interviews
Tests
Standardized
Observations
Inventories
Rating
Scales
Unobtrusive
Measures
Basic
Principles Common to
All Methods:
§
Test
Validity
Inferences
made on the basis of
scores from an
instrument must be
appropriate,
meaningful, and useful
§
Test
Reliability
Refers
to consistency of
measurement
VALIDITY
OF DESIGN
§
Internal
Validity
Refers
to extent of control
over extraneous
variables
§
External
Validity
Refers
to generalizability of
results
Two
general categories:
Populations
external validity
Ecological
external validity
SUBJECTS
Subjects
are:
- individuals
who participate in
the study
- referred
as the sample
- selected
from a larger
group called the population
§
Sample
Size
Determined
by the type of
research, research
hypotheses, financial
constraints,
importance of results,
number of variables
studied, methods of
data collection, and
degree of accuracy
needed.
§
Methods
of Selection
- Nonprobability
sampling
-using
available subjects
- Probability
sampling
-using
following procedures
to select unbiased
sample:
-simple
random sampling
-systematic
sampling
-stratified
random sampling
-cluster
sampling
DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
Indices
that summarize or
characterize a larger
number of observations
APPROPRIATE
STATISTICS determined
by:
- Purpose
of the research
- Measurement
Scale
- Nominal._
numbers
represent
categories
- Ordinal._
numbers indicate
rank
- Interval._
numbers
represent equal
intervals
- Ratio._
numbers
represent equal
units from zero
TYPES
- Measures
of Central
Tendency
Each
provides a numerical
index of the typical
score in the
distribution
Mean._
average of all scores
Median._
point that divides
distribution in half
Mode._
score that occurs most
frequently
Relationship
among mean, median,
and mode:
a)
Normal
distribution: all
indicates the same
b)
Skewed
distributions: mean
lies closest to tail,
mode lies furthest
from tail, median lies
between mean and mode
Indicates
spread of scores from
the mean of the
distribution
Range._
difference between
highest and lowest
score
Standard
deviation._ indicates
average variability of
scores
Standard
scores._ have constant
normative or relative
meaning
Indicates
the relationship
between variables
Scatter
plot – graphic
representation –
correlation
coefficient -
numerical
- Graphic
Portrayal:
provides pictorial
representation of
group data
- Frequency
distribution._
indicates number
of times each
score was
attained
- Histogram
& Frequency
Polygon._
pictorial
display of
frequency data
DATA
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
TECHNICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASURES USED OT JUDGE
OVERALL
QUALITY AND
APPROPRIATENESS
Refers
to the extent to which
inferences made from
the results are
appropriate and
meaningful
Four
Components:
-Content-related
-Concurrent
criterion-related
-Predictive
criterion-related
-Construct
related
Refers
to the consistency of
measurement
Types:
-Stability
-Equivalence
-Equivalence
and Stability
-Internal
Consistency
TESTS
1.
Standardized._
provide uniform
procedures
2.
Norm-referenced._
compare individuals to
norming group
3.
Aptitude._
predict future
performance
4.
Achievement._
measure prior learning
5.
Performance
assessment._ measures
proficiency by
observing student
perform skills of
interest
Includes
inventories that
measure traits such as
interests, attitudes,
self-concept, values,
personality, and
beliefs
QUESTIONNAIRES
Are
economical, can assure
anonymity, and permit
use of standardized
questions
-justify
use
-define
objectives
-write
questions and
statements
(items can be scaled, ranked, or have open or closed form)
-decide
on general and item
format
-pretest
questionnaire
INTERVIEW
SCHEDULES
Oral
questions and answers
-construct
interviews schedule
(questions may be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured
-pretest
questions
-remove
or rephrase leading
questions
-consider
characteristics of
interviewer that may
influence responses
-decide
on how responses will
be recorded
UNOBTRUSIVE
MEASURES
Provide
data that are
uninfluenced by an
awareness of the
subjects that they are
the participants
-physical
traces
-archives
-simple
observation
-contrived
observation
OBSERVATION
SCHEDULES
Recording
of naturally occurring
behavior
-justify
observational method
-define
precisely what will be
observed
-decide
how behaviors will be
recorded
(duration, frequency count, interval recording, continuous
observation, time
sampling)
-train
observers
NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Concerns
with current state of
something.
Investigate
changes of subjects
over time.
Can
be longitudinal or
cross-sectional.
CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH
- Simple
Relationship
Studies:
Correlation
coefficient calculated
from scores on two
variables.
-The
criterion variable is
predicted by a prior
behavior.
-Several
predictor variables
are used to make a
more accurate
prediction.
- Interpreting
Correlational
Research:
-Correlation
does not infer
causation.
-Spurious
correlations over- o
under- represent
actual relationship
between two variables.
-Correlation
coefficient expresses
degree of covariance
between variables.
-Coefficient
of determination
expresses common
variance between
variables.
SURVEY
RESEARCH
Uses
questionnaires or
interviews to describe
the characteristics of
populations.
1.
Define purpose
and objectives
2.
Select
resources and target
population
3.
Choose and
develop techniques for
gathering data
4.
Determine
method of sampling
5.
Write letter of
transmittal
6.
Send follow-up
letters to subjects
who have not responded
7.
Check
nonrespondents
EX
POST FACTO
RESEARCH
Investigates
whether pre-existing
conditions caused
differences in groups.
1.
Formulate
research problem
2.
Identify
plausible rival
hypotheses
3.
Find and select
groups that will be
compared
4.
Collect and
analyze data including
data on factors that
may constitute rival
hypotheses
EXPERIMENTAL
AND SINGLE-SUBJECT
DESIGNS
CHARACTERISTICS
OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
-Statistical
equivalence of
subjects in different
groups.
-Two groups or
conditions that can be
compared are needed.
-Manipulation
of independent
variable.
-Measurement of
dependent variables in
numerical terms.
-Use of
inferential
statistics.
-Control of
extraneous variables.
SINGLE-SUBJECT
DESIGNS
- a)
A-B: target
behavior observed
during baseline
(A) and treatment
(B) phases to
determine effect
of treatment.
- b)
A-B-A: same as (a)
with addition of
second baseline
(A) phase.
- c)
Multiple-baseline:
treatment
replicated across
two or more
students,
behaviors, or
settings.
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
- a.
One-group posttest
only: effect of
treatment given to
one group is
observed.
- b.
One-group
pretest-posttest:
group is observed
before and after
implementing
treatment.
- c.
Posttest only with
nonequivalent
groups: similar to
(a) with one
addition. A
control group
receives no
treatment or a
different one.
TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Subjects
are randomly assigned
to experimental and
control groups.
§
a.
Pretest-posttest
control group:
experimental group(s)
receive(s) pretest,
treatment, posttest;
control group receives
pre-and posttest.
§
b.
Posttest only control
group: experimental
group(s) receive(s)
treatment, posttest;
control group receives
posttest only.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
No
random assignment of
subjects
§
a.
Nonequivalent
pretest-posttest
control group:
experimental group
receives pretest,
treatment, posttest;
control group receives
pre- and posttest.
§
b.
Time-series: one group
of subjects is
measured repeatedly
before and after
treatment.
THREATS
TO VALIDITY
- Threats
to Internal
Validity
May
include: history,
selection, statistical
regression, pretesting,
instrumentation,
subject attrition,
maturation, diffusion
of treatment,
experimenter effects,
treatment
replications, subject
effects, statistical
conclusion.
- Threats
to External
Validity
May
include two general
categories: population
and ecological.
STATISTICS
The
researcher employs an
inferential statistics
test to determine the
probability that the
null is untrue. Level
of significance
indicates the chance
that it is wrong to
reject the null.
-Inferential
Statistics: Are
used to make
inferences about
populations based on
data from samples.
-Probability:
A scientific way of
stating the degree of
confidence in
predicting something.
-Null
Hypothesis: A
statement of no
relationship between
two or more variables.
-Level
of Confidence:
Expressed as a decimal
e.g., .01, .05.
STATISTICAL
TESTS
NONPARAMETRIC
Statistical
procedures used when
the assumptions
necessary to use
parametric tests are
violated.
- Chi-Square:
Used with nominal
data to test
relationships
between frequency
of observations in
categories of
independent
variables.
- Median
Test
- Mann-Whitney
U Test
- Sign
Test
- Wilconxon
matched-pairs
signed-ranks test
- Kruskal-Wallis
- One-way
Anova of ranks
PARAMETRIC
Statistical
test that assume
normality in the:
-population
-homogeneity
of variance
-interval
or ratio scale data
Used
to compare means of 2
groups to determine
the probability that
the corresponding
population means are
different.
- Independent
Samples T-Test
Used
to compare means of 2
groups that have no
relationship to each
other.
Used
to compare means of 2
groups in which
subjects are paired or
matched in some way.
- Analysis
of Variance
(ANOVA)
- One-way
ANOVA: used to
compare 2 or
more sample
means on one
independent
variable.
- Factorial
ANOVA: used to
compare 2 or
more sample
means on 2 or
more independent
variables.
Two-way
or three-way ANOVA
denotes the exact
number of independent
variables.
- Analysis
of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Two
major purposes:
1.
To adjust
initial group
differences
statistically on one
or more variables that
are related to the
dependent variable but
uncontrolled.
2.
To increase the
likelihood of finding
a significant
difference between
group means.
A
family of statistics
used when there are
more than one
independent variable,
more than one
dependent variable or
both.
Statistical
tests (e.g.,
Fisher’s LSD. Tukeys
HSD, Scheffe’s Test)
that are used with
pairs of means.
Usually
conducted after a test
of all means together.
DESIGNING
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ETHICS
Ethical
principles are similar
to those of
quantitative research.
PURPOSEFUL
SAMPLING STRATEGIES
- Site
selection
- Comprehensive
sampling
- Maximum
variation sampling
- Network
sampling
- Sampling
by case type
PHASE
OF DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSES
1.
Planning
2.
Beginning data
collection
3.
Basic data
collection
4.
Closing data
collection
5.
Completion
CASE
STUDY DESIGN
Researcher
selects one phenomenon
to understand in depth
- Purposes:
- To
develop concept
or model
- To
describe and
analyze a
situation,
event, or
process
- To
evaluate a
program
- To
identify policy
issues
- To
contribute to
large scale
research
projects
- Used
as a precursor
to quantitative
research
INTERNAL
VALIDITY
- Threats
include:
- history
- maturation
- observer
/ researcher
effects
- selection
- attrition
- alternative
explanations
- Strategies
to Enhance
Internal Validity
- lengthy
data collection
period
- participants
language
- field
research
- disciplined
subjectivity
EXTERNAL
VALIDITY
- Threats
are effects which
limit
comparability and
translatability
and include:
- selection
- setting
- history
- theoretical
RELIABILITY
- In
Design:
Reliability is
enhanced by making
explicit 6
aspects:
- researcher
role
- informant
selection
- social
context
- data
collection and
analyses
strategies
- analytical
premises
- In
Data Collection:
Strategies used to
reduce threats to
reliability:
- verbatim
accounts
- low
inference
descriptors
- multiple
researchers
- mechanically
recorded data
- participant
researcher
- member
checking
- participant
review
- negative
cases
ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH
FORESHADOWED
PROBLEMS
- Anticipated
research problems
which will be
reformulated
during data
collection
- Reflect
naturalistic
discovery-orientation,
and the initial
conceptual
framwork
- Indicate
focus of data
collection
strategies
ENTRY
INTO THE FIELD
Involves
the following
1.
Site selection
2.
Mapping the
field: social, spacial
and temporal maps
3.
Selection of
interviewers
4.
Choosing the
research role
a.
observer-participant
b.
participant-observer
c.
interviewer
DATA
COLLECTION STRATEGIES
- PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
- On-site
observation:
researcher is
present in the
field or site
for an extensive
time.
- Prolonged
Data Collection:
data is
collected until
naturalistic
event ends or is
no longer
relevant.
- Obtaining
people’s
perceptions of
reality
expressed in
their actions as
feelings,
thoughts, and
beliefs.
- Corroborating
field
observations.
- Observing
and recording
phenomena
salient to the
foreshadowed
problems. Use of
field notes and
summary
observations.
- INTERVIEWING
- Selecting
type of
interview
- informal
conversational
- interview
guide approach
- standardized
open-ended
- key-informant
- career
and life
history
- Determining
content of
questions,
writing quality
questions, and
deciding their
sequence
- Taking
into account
factors that
influence an
interview
session-duration,
number of
interviews,
settings,
identity of the
individuals, and
informant style.
- Deciding
how responses
will be
recorded-handwritten,
or tape
recorded, or
both.
- Typing
handwritten
records, or
transcribing
tapes.
- DOCUMENT
AND ARTIFACT
COLLECTION
- Selecting
type of document
or artifact
- personal
documents
- official
documents
- objects
- erosion
measures
- Analyzing
and interpreting
documents and
artifact
collection
ANALYTICAL
RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS
1.
Topics of
analysis: historical,
legal, policy
2.
Types of
sources: documents,
oral testimonies, and
relics
3.
Search for
facts: requires
locating primary and
secondary sources
4.
Analytical
generalizations and
explanations:
inductive logic
applied to
generalizations to
suggest causal
explanations
5.
Kinds of
analysis: conceptual,
interpretative,
comparative, and
universal analyses,
edition, descriptive
narration.
USES
OF
1.
Provides
knowledge and
explanation to the
past
2.
Clarifies
present legal and
policy discussions
3.
Creates a sense
of common purpose
about education in the
society
TYPES
OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
Focuses
on the meaning of a
concept (e.g.,
education, literacy,
knowledge) by
describing the generic
meaning, the essential
meanings, and the
appropriate usage of
the concept.
Researcher
uses 3 types of
analysis:
-generic
-differential
-conditions
- Educational
Historical and
Policy Events
Focuses
on biographies,
movements,
institutions,
practices, analysis
and distribution of
power, policy-making
processes, and
policy content
changes.
Researcher:
1.
Identifies
topic and develops
problem statement.
2.
Locates primary
and secondary sources
in documents and oral
testimonies.
3.
Looks at the
relationship between
facts and interprets
them as
generalizations.
Synthesizes
generalizations and
provides causal
explanations or
conclusions.
Focuses
on legal issues to
discover what is the
law in specific
situations
Researcher:
1.
Selects a
problem in terms of
party/parties subject
matter or property
involved, nature of
claim, and object or
remedy sought.
2.
Locates primary
sources (federal,
state, and local
statutes, and court
decisions), and
secondary sources
(e.g., legal
periodicals,
yearbooks, casebooks
and others).
3.
Uses the case
study design to
analyze statutes and
court decisions,
synthesize primary and
secondary sources, and
to state a definitive
position on a legal
issue.
QUALITATIVE
DATA ANALYSIS
An
inductive process of
organizing data into
categories and
identifying patterns
(relationships) among
categories. Data
analysis entails
several cyclical
phases.
§
Analysis
that occurs during
data collection:
- Discovery Analysis:
Strategies
include:
-writing
observer comments and
summaries
-playing
with ideas
-exploring
the literature
-using
metaphors and
analogies
- Interim Analysis:
Assists
in making data
collection decisions
and identifying
emerging topics and
recurring meanings.
CODING
TOPICS AND CATEGORIES
Typically
occurs after data
collection.
Developing
an organizing system
to divide data into
segments.
§
Steps:
1.
Get a sense of
the whole
2.
Generate topics
from the data
3.
Compare
duplication of topics
4.
Try out
provisional
classification system
5.
Refining
organizing system
Developing
topics into discrete
categories.
§
Predetermined
categories: derived
from research problem,
interview guide,
literature, and
researcher’s prior
knowledge.
§
Emic
categories: represent
insider’s view i.e.
terms, actions, and
explanations that are
distinctive to the
settings or people.
§
Etic
categories: represent
outsider’s views
i.e. researcher’s
concepts and
scientific
explanations.
PATTERNS
Finding
relationships among
categories.
Techniques
for pattern-seeking:
§
gauging
data trustworthiness
§
using
triangulation
§
evaluating
discrepant or negative
evidence
§
ordering
categories for
patterns
§
sorting
categories for
patterns
§
constructing
integrative diagrams
§
doing
logical cross-analyses
A
pattern becomes an
explanation only when
alternative patterns
do not offer
reasonable
explanations central
to the research
problem.
PRESENTATION
OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS
Qualitative
studies:
§
Present
context and quotations
of participant
language as data.
§
Are
written in a variety
of formats; detailed
reporting,
descriptive-analytical
interpretations, and
abstract theoretical
discussions.
DATA
MANAGEMENT
§
Develop
data filing system.
§
Manage
data manually
(cut-and-file, and
file-card techniques),
or using the computer
(word processing, or
text analysis
programs).
EVALUATION
RESEARCH
PURPOSES
OF EVALUATION
- Formative:
evaluation
designed and used
to improve a
practice in the
early stages of
development.
- Summative:
evaluation
designed to
determine the
merit, worth, or
both of a
developed
practice, and to
make
recommendations
regarding its use.
EVALUATION
APPROACHES
- Objectives-oriented:
determines degree
to which
objectives of a
practice are
attained by a
target group.
- Decision-oriented:
supplies
information for
needs assessment,
program planning,
program
implementation or
outcomes.
- Naturalistic
and
participant-oriented:
uses multimethods
to provide an
understanding of
the divergent
values of a
practice from the
participants’
perspectives.
CRITERIA
USED TO JUDGE QUALITY
- Utility:
does the
evaluation serve
the needs of a
given audience?
- Feasibility:
is the evaluation
realistic, frugal,
and diplomatic?
- Propriety:
has the evaluation
been conducted
legally and
ethically?
- Accuracy:
does the
evaluation provide
accurate
information about
the practices
studied?
POTENTIAL
BENEFITS
- Systematic
implementation of
school
improvements
- Cost
analyses of large
expenditures
- Assessment
of educational
effects on
students
- Appraisal
of the quality of
education
- Reduction
of uncertainty in
innovative
practices
- Legitimization
of decisions
- Enlightenment
of influentials in
decision and
policy arenas to
better anticipate
program and policy
issues
LIMITATIONS
- Failure
of studies to
improve
educational
practices and
educational policy
formulation.
- Failure
to appreciate that
research is only
one of many
influences on
educational
policies,
practices, and
decisions.
POLICY
ANALYSIS
PERSPECTIVE
- Central
concept is choice
- Uses
two approaches:
- Macro-based
on economic and
system models
- Micro-incremental
activist, field
oriented, and
eclectic
CHARACTERISTICS
- Multidimensional
in focus
- Uses
an empirico-inductive
research
orientation
- Incorporates
past and future
- Responds
to study users
- Incorporates
values
METHODS
- Focused
synthesis
- Secondary
analysis
- Field
experiments
- Qualitative
interviews
- Surveys
- Case
studies
TYPES
OF
- Cost
analysis:
- cost
benefit
- cost
effectiveness
- cost
utility
- cost
feasibility
- Indicator
systems. Functions
of:
- provides
information
about the
operation of a
program
- determines
success of a
program
- suggest
areas of further
study
- accountability
- Case
Studies
- multisite
studies
- critical
ethnography
- eclectic
case studies
POTENTIAL
BENEFITS
- Systematic
implementation of
school
improvements
- Cost
analyses of large
expenditures
- Assessment
of educational
effects on
students
- Appraisal
of the quality of
education
- Reduction
of uncertainty in
innovative
practices
- Legitimization
of decisions
- Enlightenment
of influentials in
decision and
policy arenas to
better anticipate
program and policy
issues
LIMITATIONS
- Failure
of studies to
improve
educational
practices and
educational policy
formulation.
- Failure to appreciate that
research is only
one of many
influences on
educational
policies,
practices, and
decisions.
GUIDELINES
FOR RESEARCH PROPOSALS
FORMS
OF RESEARCH
COMMUNICATION
- Research
proposal
- Thesis
or dissertation
- Journal
article
- Evaluation
and technical
report
- Paper
presentations
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH PROPOSALS
I.
Introduction
a.
General
statement of the
problem
b.
Review of the
literature
c.
Specific
research question
and/or hypotheses
d.
Significance of
the proposed study
II.
Design and
Methodology
a.
Subjects
b.
Instrumentation
c.
Procedures
d.
Data Analysis
and Presentation
e.
Limitations of
the Design
III.
References
IV.
Appendices
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH PROPOSALS
Ethnographic
I.
Introduction
a.
General
statement of the
problem
b.
Preliminary
literature review
c.
Foreshadowed
Problems
d.
Significance of
the proposed study
II.
Design and Methodology
a.
Site or social
network selection
b.
Research role
c.
Purpose
sampling strategies
III.
References or
Bibliography
IV.
Appendices
Historical
and Legal
I.
Introduction
a.
General
statement of the
problem
b.
Preliminary
literature review
c.
Specific
research historical
questions or legal
issues
d.
Significance of
the proposed study
II.
Design and Methodology
a.
Case study
design
b.
Sources:
search, selection and
criticism
c.
Inductive data
analysis
d.
Limitations of
design
III.
References or
Bibliography
IV.
Appendices
COMMON
WEAKNESSES
- Problem
is trivial and not
delimited.
- Objectives
of the study are
too general.
- Methodology
is lacking in
detail appropriate
for the study.
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